Home  ›  What group of psychoactive drugs has grown to be the most problematic in central Virginia?

What group of psychoactive drugs has grown to be the most problematic in central Virginia?

Written By quinta-feira, 7 de abril de 2022 Add Comment Edit

Mushrooms containing psychoactive indole alkaloids

Psilocybin mushrooms; commonly known as magic mushrooms, mushrooms or shrooms, are a polyphyletic informal group of fungi that contain psilocybin which turns into psilocin upon ingestion.[1] [two] Biological genera containing psilocybin mushrooms include Copelandia, Gymnopilus, Inocybe, Panaeolus, Pholiotina, Pluteus, and Psilocybe. Psilocybin mushrooms have been and keep to be used in ethnic New World cultures in religious, divinatory, or spiritual contexts.[3] Psilocybin mushrooms are also used as recreational drugs. They may be depicted in Rock Age rock art in Africa and Europe, but are most famously represented in the Pre-Columbian sculptures and glyphs seen throughout North, Key and South America.

History [edit]

Early on [edit]

Pre-Columbian mushroom stones

Prehistoric stone arts near Villar del Humo in Spain, suggests that Psilocybe hispanica was used in religious rituals 6,000 years ago.[4] The hallucinogenic[5] species of the Psilocybe genus accept a history of utilize amongst the native peoples of Mesoamerica for religious communion, divination, and healing, from pre-Columbian times to the present day.[6] Mushroom stones and motifs take been found in Guatemala.[7] A statuette dating from ca. 200 CE. depicting a mushroom strongly resembling Psilocybe mexicana was establish in the due west Mexican country of Colima in a shaft and chamber tomb. A Psilocybe species known to the Aztecs as teōnanācatl (literally "divine mushroom": agglutinative course of teōtl (god, sacred) and nanācatl (mushroom) in Nahuatl language) was reportedly served at the coronation of the Aztec ruler Moctezuma 2 in 1502. Aztecs and Mazatecs referred to psilocybin mushrooms as genius mushrooms, divinatory mushrooms, and wondrous mushrooms, when translated into English language.[8] Bernardino de Sahagún reported the ritualistic apply of teonanácatl past the Aztecs when he traveled to Central America later the trek of Hernán Cortés.[9]

Afterward the Spanish conquest, Catholic missionaries campaigned confronting the cultural tradition of the Aztecs, dismissing the Aztecs equally idolaters, and the apply of hallucinogenic plants and mushrooms, together with other pre-Christian traditions, was quickly suppressed.[7] The Castilian believed the mushroom allowed the Aztecs and others to communicate with demons. Despite this history the use of teonanácatl has persisted in some remote areas.[3]

Modern [edit]

The outset mention of hallucinogenic mushrooms in European medicinal literature was in the London Medical and Physical Journal in 1799: a man served Psilocybe semilanceata mushrooms he had picked for breakfast in London'south Green Park to his family. The apothecary who treated them afterward described how the youngest child "was attacked with fits of immoderate laughter, nor could the threats of his father or female parent refrain him."[ten]

In 1955, Valentina Pavlovna Wasson and R. Gordon Wasson became the outset known European Americans to actively participate in an indigenous mushroom ceremony. The Wassons did much to publicize their experience, fifty-fifty publishing an commodity on their experiences in Life on May 13, 1957.[11] In 1956, Roger Heim identified the psychoactive mushroom the Wassons brought dorsum from Mexico as Psilocybe,[12] and in 1958, Albert Hofmann get-go identified psilocybin and psilocin as the active compounds in these mushrooms.[13] [14]

Inspired past the Wassons' Life article, Timothy Leary traveled to Mexico to experience psilocybin mushrooms himself. When he returned to Harvard in 1960, he and Richard Alpert started the Harvard Psilocybin Projection, promoting psychological and religious report of psilocybin and other psychedelic drugs. Alpert and Leary sought out to acquit enquiry with psilocybin on prisoners in the 1960s, testing its effects on backsliding.[15] This experiment reviewed the subjects six months later, and found that the recidivism rate had decreased beyond their expectation, beneath forty%. This, and another experiment administering psilocybin to graduate divinity students, showed controversy. Presently after Leary and Alpert were dismissed from their jobs by Harvard in 1963, they turned their attending toward promoting the psychedelic experience to the nascent hippie counterculture.[16]

The popularization of entheogens by the Wassons, Leary, Terence McKenna, Robert Anton Wilson and many others led to an explosion in the employ of psilocybin mushrooms throughout the world. Past the early 1970s, many psilocybin mushroom species were described from temperate North America, Europe, and Asia and were widely nerveless. Books describing methods of cultivating large quantities of Psilocybe cubensis were also published. The availability of psilocybin mushrooms from wild and cultivated sources have fabricated them 1 of the virtually widely used of the psychedelic drugs.

At present, psilocybin mushroom utilize has been reported amongst some groups spanning from key United mexican states to Oaxaca, including groups of Nahua, Mixtecs, Mixe, Mazatecs, Zapotecs, and others.[three] An important figure of mushroom usage in Mexico was María Sabina,[17] who used native mushrooms, such as Psilocybe mexicana in her practice.

Occurrence [edit]

In a 2000 review on the worldwide distribution of psilocybin mushrooms, Gastón Guzmán and colleagues considered these distributed among the following genera: Psilocybe (116 species), Gymnopilus (fourteen), Panaeolus (xiii), Copelandia (12), Pluteus (6) Inocybe (6), Pholiotina (iv) and Galerina (i).[18] Guzmán increased his judge of the number of psilocybin-containing Psilocybe to 144 species in a 2005 review.

Global distribution of 100+ psychoactive species of genus Psilocybe mushrooms.[xix]

Many of them are found in Mexico (53 species), with the remainder distributed throughout Canada and the US (22), Europe (16), Asia (fifteen), Africa (4), and Australia and associated islands (19).[20] Generally, psilocybin-containing species are dark-spored, gilled mushrooms that grow in meadows and woods in the subtropics and tropics, usually in soils rich in humus and plant debris.[21] Psilocybin mushrooms occur on all continents, only the bulk of species are found in subtropical humid forests.[18] P. cubensis is the nearly common Psilocybe in tropical areas. P. semilanceata, considered the world'due south most widely distributed psilocybin mushroom,[22] is plant in temperate parts of Europe, North America, Asia, Due south America, Commonwealth of australia and New Zealand, although information technology is absent from Mexico.[20]

Composition [edit]

Magic mushroom limerick varies from genus to genus and species to species.[23] Its principal component is psilocybin[24] which gets converted into psilocin to produce psychoactive upshot. Besides, psilocin, norpsilocin, baeocystin, norbaeocystin and aeruginascin may as well be present which can modify the effects of magic mushrooms.[23] Panaeolus subbalteatus, one of magic mushroom, had highest amount of psilocybin compared to the residue of the fruiting body.[23] Certain mushrooms are found to produce beta-carbolines which inhibit monoamine oxidase, an enzyme that breaks down tryptamine alkaloids. They occur in different genera, like Psilocybe,[25] Cyclocybe [26] and Hygrophorus [27] Harmine, harmane, norharmane and a range of other l-tryptophan-derived β-carbolines were discovered in Psilocybe species.

Effects [edit]

The effects of psilocybin mushrooms come from psilocybin and psilocin. When psilocybin is ingested, information technology is cleaved down by the liver in a process called dephosphorylation. The resulting compound is called psilocin, which is responsible for the psychedelic effects.[28] Psilocybin and psilocin create brusque-term increases in tolerance of users, thus making it hard to misuse them considering the more often they are taken within a short menstruation of fourth dimension, the weaker the resultant effects are.[29] Psilocybin mushrooms have non been known to cause physical or psychological dependence (addiction).[30] The psychedelic effects tend to appear around 20 minutes subsequently ingestion and can last up to 6 hours. Concrete effects including nausea, airsickness, euphoria, muscle weakness or relaxation, drowsiness, and lack of coordination may occur.

Equally with many psychedelic substances, the furnishings of psychedelic mushrooms are subjective and tin can vary considerably amongst individual users. The heed-altering effects of psilocybin-containing mushrooms typically last from three to eight hours depending on dosage, preparation method, and personal metabolism. The commencement iii–4 hours after ingestion are typically referred to as the 'peak'—in which the user experiences more vivid visuals and distortions in reality. The effects tin can seem to final much longer to the user because of psilocybin'southward power to alter fourth dimension perception.[31]

Despite risks, mushrooms do much less damage in the U.k. than other recreational drugs.

Sensory [edit]

Sensory effects include visual and auditory hallucinations followed by emotional changes and altered perception of time and space.[32] Noticeable changes to the auditory, visual, and tactile senses may become apparent around 30 minutes to an hr subsequently ingestion, although effects may take up to two hours to take place. These shifts in perception visually include enhancement and contrasting of colors, strange light phenomena (such as auras or "halos" around light sources), increased visual vigil, surfaces that seem to ripple, shimmer, or breathe; complex open up and airtight heart visuals of class constants or images, objects that warp, morph, or change solid colours; a sense of melting into the environment, and trails behind moving objects. Sounds may seem to have increased clarity—music, for example, tin accept on a profound sense of cadence and depth.[32] Some users feel synesthesia, wherein they perceive, for example, a visualization of color upon hearing a particular sound.[33]

Emotional [edit]

Every bit with other psychedelics such as LSD, the experience, or 'trip', is strongly dependent upon prepare and setting.[32] Hilarity, lack of concentration, and muscular relaxation (including dilated pupils) are all normal effects, sometimes in the aforementioned trip.[32] A negative environment could contribute to a bad trip, whereas a comfortable and familiar surround would set the stage for a pleasant experience. Psychedelics make experiences more than intense, so if a person enters a trip in an anxious state of listen, they volition likely feel heightened anxiety on their trip. Many users find it preferable to ingest the mushrooms with friends or people who are familiar with 'tripping'.[34] The psychological consequences of psilocybin use include hallucinations and an inability to discern fantasy from reality. Panic reactions and psychosis as well may occur, peculiarly if a user ingests a large dose. In addition to the risks associated with ingestion of psilocybin, individuals who seek to employ psilocybin mushrooms as well take chances poisoning if one of the many varieties of poisonous mushrooms is confused with a psilocybin mushroom.[35]

Dosage [edit]

A bag of 1.5 grams of dried psilocybe cubensis mushrooms.

Dosage of mushrooms containing psilocybin depends on the psilocybin and psilocin content of the mushroom which can vary significantly between and within the same species, but is typically effectually 0.5–ii.0% of the dried weight of the mushroom. Usual doses of the common species Psilocybe cubensis range around i.0 to two.5 1000,[36] while about 2.5 to 5.0 thousand[36] dried mushroom material is considered a strong dose. Above v m is often considered a heavy dose with 5.0 grams of dried mushroom often being referred to as a "heroic dose".[37] [38]

The concentration of active psilocybin mushroom compounds varies from species to species, only also from mushroom to mushroom within a given species, subspecies or diverseness. The aforementioned holds truthful for different parts of the same mushroom. In the species Psilocybe samuiensis, the dried cap of the mushroom contains the most psilocybin at about 0.23%–0.90%. The mycelium contains virtually 0.24%–0.32%.[39] Drinking a mushroom tea is easier on the stomach than consuming the difficult to digest, raw mushroom material, such equally chitin which makes upward fungi's jail cell walls.[xl]

Research [edit]

Due partly to restrictions of the Controlled Substances Human activity in the United states of america, research had been frozen until the early 21st century when psilocybin mushrooms were tested for their potential to treat drug dependence, anxiety and mood disorders.[41] In 2018–19, the Nutrient and Drug Administration (FDA) granted Breakthrough Therapy Designation for studies of psilocybin in depressive disorders.[42]

A study at Johns Hopkins University plant that a dose of 20 to 30 mg psilocybin per 70 kg occasioning mystical-blazon experiences brought lasting positive changes to traits including altruism, gratitude, forgiveness and feeling shut to others when information technology was combined with meditation and an all-encompassing spiritual do support programme.[43] [44] At that place is scientific testify for a context- and country-dependent causal effect of psychedelic use on connexion with nature.[45]

Legality [edit]

The legality of the cultivation, possession, and auction of psilocybin mushrooms and of psilocybin and psilocin varies from state to country.

See as well [edit]

  • Magic truffle
  • List of psilocybin mushroom species
  • List of psychoactive plants, fungi, and animals
  • Entheogenic drugs and the archaeological record
  • Psychedelic (disambiguation)
  • Psilocybin decriminalization in the United States
  • Psychonautics
  • Mystical psychosis
  • Ethnomycology
  • Medicinal fungi
  • Mushroom tea
  • Carlos Castaneda
  • Paul Stamets

References [edit]

  1. ^ Kuhn, Cynthia; Swartzwelder, Scott; Wilson, Wilkie (2003). Buzzed: The Straight Facts about the Most Used and Driveling Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy. W.W. Norton & Company. p. 83. ISBN978-0-393-32493-8.
  2. ^ Canada, Health (January 12, 2012). "Magic mushrooms – Canada.ca". world wide web.canada.ca. Archived from the original on December 22, 2017. Retrieved December 20, 2017.
  3. ^ a b c Guzmán Grand. (2008). "Hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico: An overview". Economic Botany. 62 (three): 404–412. doi:10.1007/s12231-008-9033-viii. S2CID 22085876.
  4. ^ Akers, Brian P.; Ruiz, Juan Francisco; Piper, Alan; Ruck, Carl A. P. (2011). "A Prehistoric Mural in Spain Depicting Neurotropic Psilocybe Mushrooms?1". Economic Botany. 65 (two): 121–128. doi:x.1007/s12231-011-9152-5. S2CID 3955222.
  5. ^ Abuse, National Institute on Drug (Apr 22, 2019). "Hallucinogens DrugFacts". National Institute on Drug Abuse. Archived from the original on Dec 26, 2018. Retrieved December 27, 2020.
  6. ^ F.J. Carod-Artal (January 1, 2015). "Hallucinogenic drugs in pre-Columbian Mesoamerican cultures". Neurología (English Edition). 30 (ane): 42–49. doi:10.1016/j.nrleng.2011.07.010. PMID 21893367.
  7. ^ a b Stamets (1996), p. xi.
  8. ^ Stamets (1996), p. seven.
  9. ^ Hofmann A. (1980). "The Mexican relatives of LSD". LSD: My Problem Child. New York City: McGraw-Hill. pp. 49–71. ISBN978-0-07-029325-0.
  10. ^ Brande E. (1799). "Mr. E. Brande, on a poisonous species of Agaric". The Medical and Physical Periodical: Containing the Earliest Data on Subjects of Medicine, Surgery, Pharmacy, Chemistry and Natural History. 3 (xi): 41–44. PMC5659401. PMID 30490162.
  11. ^ Wasson RG (1957). "Seeking the magic mushroom". Life. No. May 13. pp. 100–120.
  12. ^ Heim R. (1957). "Notes préliminaires sur les agarics hallucinogènes du Mexique" [Preliminary notes on the hallucination-producing agarics of United mexican states]. Revue de Mycologie (in French). 22 (1): 58–79.
  13. ^ Hofmann A, Frey A, Ott H, Petrzilka T, Troxler F (1958). "Konstitutionsaufklärung und Synthese von Psilocybin" [The limerick and synthesis of psilocybin]. Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences (in German). 14 (11): 397–399. doi:x.1007/BF02160424. PMID 13609599. S2CID 33692940.
  14. ^ Hofmann A, Heim R, Brack A, Kobel H (1958). "Psilocybin, ein psychotroper Wirkstoff aus dem mexikanischen Rauschpilz Psilocybe mexicana Heim" [Psilocybin, a psychotropic drug from the Mexican magic mushroom Psilocybe mexicana Heim]. Experientia (in German language). 14 (3): 107–109. doi:10.1007/BF02159243. PMID 13537892. S2CID 42898430.
  15. ^ "Dr. Leary'south Hold Prison house Experiment: A 34 Year Follow-Up Written report". Message of the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. ix (4): 10–18. 1999. Archived from the original on March 23, 2021. Retrieved March 26, 2021.
  16. ^ Lattin, Don (2010). The Harvard Psychedelic Club: How Timothy Leary, Ram Dass, Huston Smith, and Andrew Weil killed the fifties and ushered in a new age for America (1st ed.). New York: HarperOne. pp. 37–44. ISBN978-0-06-165593-vii.
  17. ^ Monaghan, John D.; Cohen, Jeffrey H. (2000). "30 years of Oaxacan ethnography". In Monaghan, John; Edmonson, Barbara (eds.). Ethnology. Austin, Texas: University of Texas Press. p. 165. ISBN978-0-292-70881-5.
  18. ^ a b Guzmán, Thou.; Allen, J.W.; Gartz, J. (2000). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and word" (PDF). Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto: Sezione Archeologia, Storia, Scienze Naturali. 14: 189–280. Archived (PDF) from the original on Feb 5, 2018. Retrieved April five, 2022.
  19. ^ Guzmán G, Allen JW, Gartz J (1998). "A worldwide geographical distribution of the neurotropic fungi, an analysis and discussion" (PDF). Annali del Museo Civico di Rovereto. xiv: 207. Archived (PDF) from the original on June 26, 2010. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
  20. ^ a b Guzmán, Thousand. (2005). "Species diversity of the genus Psilocybe (Basidiomycotina, Agaricales, Strophariaceae) in the world mycobiota, with special attending to hallucinogenic properties". International Journal of Medicinal Mushrooms. 7 (1–2): 305–331. doi:ten.1615/intjmedmushr.v7.i12.280.
  21. ^ Wurst, Grand.; Kysilka, R.; Flieger, M. (2002). "Psychoactive tryptamines from Basidiomycetes". Folia Microbiologica. 47 (1): 3–27 [5]. doi:10.1007/BF02818560. PMID 11980266. S2CID 31056807.
  22. ^ Guzmán, Thousand. (1983). The Genus Psilocybe: A Systematic Revision of the Known Species Including the History, Distribution, and Chemical science of the Hallucinogenic Species. Beihefte Zur Nova Hedwigia. Vol. 74. Vaduz, Liechtenstein: J. Cramer. pp. 361–2. ISBN978-3-7682-5474-eight.
  23. ^ a b c "Chemical Limerick Variability in Magic Mushrooms". March 4, 2019. Archived from the original on August 18, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
  24. ^ "Hallucinogenic mushrooms drug profile". European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction. Archived from the original on Baronial 17, 2021. Retrieved August 17, 2021.
  25. ^ Blei F, Dörner S, Fricke J, Baldeweg F, Trottmann F, Komor A, Meyer F, Hertweck C, Hoffmeister D (January 2020). "Simultaneous Product of Psilocybin and a Cocktail of β-Carboline Monoamine Oxidase Inhibitors in "Magic" Mushrooms". Chemistry—A European Journal. 26 (3): 729–734. doi:10.1002/chem.201904363. PMC7003923. PMID 31729089.
  26. ^ Krüzselyi D, Vetter J, Ott PG, Darcsi A, Béni S, Gömöry Á, Drahos L, Zsila F, Móricz ÁM (September 2019). "Isolation and structural elucidation of a novel brunnein-blazon antioxidant β-carboline alkaloid from Cyclocybe cylindracea". Fitoterapia. 137: 104180. doi:x.1016/j.fitote.2019.104180. PMID 31150766. S2CID 172137046.
  27. ^ Teichert A, Lübken T, Schmidt J, Kuhnt C, Huth One thousand, Porzel A, Wessjohann L, Arnold N (2008). "Conclusion of beta-carboline alkaloids in fruiting bodies of Hygrophorus spp. by liquid chromatography/electrospray ionisation tandem mass spectrometry". Phytochemical Analysis. 19 (iv): 335–41. doi:x.1002/pca.1057. PMID 18401852.
  28. ^ Passie, T.; Seifert, J.; Schneider, und; Emrich, H.K. (2002). "The pharmacology of psilocybin". Addiction Biology. seven (four): 357–364. doi:10.1080/1355621021000005937. PMID 14578010. S2CID 12656091.
  29. ^ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Heart. Archived from the original on May 12, 2007. Retrieved April 4, 2007.
  30. ^ van Amsterdam, J.; Opperhuizen, A.; van den Brink, W. (2011). "Damage potential of magic mushroom use: A review". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology. 59 (iii): 423–429. doi:10.1016/j.yrtph.2011.01.006. PMID 21256914.
  31. ^ Wittmann, M.; Carter, O.; Hasler, F.; Cahn, B.R.; Grimberg, und; Bound, P.; Hell, D.; Flohr, H.; Vollenweider, F.X. (2007). "Effects of psilocybin on time perception and temporal command of behaviour in humans". Journal of Psychopharmacology. 21 (ane): fifty–64. doi:10.1177/0269881106065859. PMID 16714323. S2CID 3165579.
  32. ^ a b c d Schultes, Richard Evans (1976). Hallucinogenic Plants. Illustrated by Elmer W. Smith. New York: Gold Press. p. 68. ISBN978-0-307-24362-i.
  33. ^ Ballesteros, S.; Ramón, M.F.; Iturralde, M.J.; Martínez-Arrieta, R. (2006). "Natural Sources of Drugs of Abuse: Magic Mushrooms". In Cole, S.M. (ed.). New Research on Street Drugs. Nova Science Publishers. p. 175. ISBN978-one-59454-961-8.
  34. ^ Stamets (1996)
  35. ^ "Psilocybin Fast Facts". National Drug Intelligence Centre, US Department of Justice. Archived from the original on May iii, 2018. Retrieved May three, 2018. Public Domain This commodity incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain .
  36. ^ a b Erowid (2006). "Dosage Chart for Psychedelic Mushrooms" (shtml). Erowid. Archived from the original on April eighteen, 2007. Retrieved Dec 1, 2006.
  37. ^ "Terence McKenna's Last Trip". Wired Magazine. Condé Nast Publications. May one, 2000. Archived from the original on March 14, 2014. Retrieved September 17, 2017.
  38. ^ Jesso, James Due west. (June 13, 2013). Decomposing The Shadow: Lessons From The Psilocybin Mushroom. SoulsLantern Publishing. p. 90. ISBN978-0-9919435-0-0.
  39. ^ Gartz J, Allen JW, Merlin MD (2004). "Ethnomycology, biochemistry, and tillage of Psilocybe samuiensis Guzmán, Bandala and Allen, a new psychoactive fungus from Koh Samui, Thailand". Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 43 (2): 73–80. doi:ten.1016/0378-8741(94)90006-X. PMID 7967658.
  40. ^ Janikian, Michelle (November iv, 2021). "How to Make Shroom Tea: The Ultimate Mushroom Tea Guide". DoubleBlind Magazine. Archived from the original on January 6, 2022. Retrieved Jan 6, 2022.
  41. ^ Bui, Eric; King, Franklin; Melaragno, Andrew (Dec i, 2019). "Pharmacotherapy of anxiety disorders in the 21st century: A call for novel approaches (Review)". Full general Psychiatry. 32 (6): e100136. doi:10.1136/gpsych-2019-100136. PMC6936967. PMID 31922087.
  42. ^ "FDA grants Quantum Therapy Designation to Usona Plant's psilocybin program for major depressive disorder". www.businesswire.com. November 22, 2019. Archived from the original on October 26, 2021. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
  43. ^ Griffiths, Roland R.; et al. (October 2017). "Psilocybin-occasioned mystical-type experience in combination with meditation and other spiritual practices produces enduring positive changes in psychological functioning and in trait measures of prosocial attitudes and behaviors". Periodical of Psychopharmacology. 32 (1): 49–69. doi:10.1177/0269881117731279. PMC5772431. PMID 29020861.
  44. ^ "Psilocybin (from magic mushrooms) plus meditation and spiritual preparation leads to lasting changes in positive traits". Enquiry Digest. Jan nineteen, 2018. Archived from the original on February 21, 2019. Retrieved February 21, 2019.
  45. ^ Kettner, Hannes; Gandy, Sam; Haijen, Eline C. H. K.; Carhart-Harris, Robin Fifty. (Dec 16, 2019). "From Egoism to Ecoism: Psychedelics Increase Nature Relatedness in a State-Mediated and Context-Dependent Manner". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (24): 5147. doi:10.3390/ijerph16245147. PMC6949937. PMID 31888300.

Bibliography [edit]

  • Allen, J.W. (1997). Magic Mushrooms of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle: Raver Books and John W. Allen. ISBN978-1-58214-026-ane.
  • Estrada, A. (1981). Maria Sabina: Her Life and Chants. Ross Erikson. ISBN978-0-915520-32-9.
  • Haze, Virginia & Dr. Yard. Mandrake, PhD. The Psilocybin Mushroom Bible: The Definitive Guide to Growing and Using Magic Mushrooms. Green Candy Press: Toronto, Canada, 2016. ISBN 978-ane-937866-28-0. www.greencandypress.com.
  • Högberg, O. (2003). Flugsvampen och människan (in Swedish). ISBN978-91-7203-555-iii.
  • Kuhn, C.; Swartzwelder, South; Wilson, W. (2003). Buzzed: The Direct Facts nearly the Most Used and Abused Drugs from Alcohol to Ecstasy . New York: W.Due west. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0-393-32493-eight.
  • Letcher, A. (2006). Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. London: Faber and Faber. ISBN978-0-571-22770-9.
  • McKenna, T. (1993). Food of the Gods. Bantam. ISBN978-0-553-37130-7.
  • Nicholas, L.Thousand.; Ogame, 1000. (2006). Psilocybin Mushroom Handbook: Easy Indoor and Outdoor Cultivation. Quick American Archives. ISBN978-0-932551-71-9.
  • Stamets, P. (1993). Growing Gourmet and Medicinal Mushrooms. Berkeley: Ten Speed Press. ISBN978-1-58008-175-7.
  • Stamets, P.; Chilton, J.S. (1983). The Mushroom Cultivator. Olympia: Agarikon Press. ISBN978-0-9610798-0-2.
  • Stamets, P. (1996). Psilocybin Mushrooms of the Globe. Berkeley: Ten Speed Printing. ISBN978-0-9610798-0-2.
  • Wasson, G.R. (1980). The Wondrous Mushroom: Mycolatry in Mesoamerica. McGraw-Colina. ISBN978-0-07-068443-0.

External links [edit]

The lexicon definition of magic mushroom at Wiktionary

fraisedonvorged.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psilocybin_mushroom

0 Response to "What group of psychoactive drugs has grown to be the most problematic in central Virginia?"

Postar um comentário

Assinar: Postar comentários (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel